Main article: Kashmir conflict
The Kashmir– the most northwesterly region of South Asia– is a primary territorial dispute that hindered the relations between Indiaand Pakistan. Two nations have fought at least three large-scale conventional wars in successive years of 1947, 1965, and 1971. The conflict in 1971 witnessed Pakistan's unconditional surrender and a treaty that subsequently led to the independence ofBangladesh.[188] Other serious military engagements and skirmishes included the armed contacts in Siachen Glacier (1984) andKargil (1999).[144] Approximately 45.1% of the Kashmir region is controlled by India while claiming the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir, including most of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and the Siachen.[144] The claim is contested by Pakistan, which approximately controls the 38.2% of the Kashmir region, known as the Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan.[144][189]
The Kashmir conflict has its roots with the English Crown's decision of partitioning the British India in 1947. As part of the partition process, two nations had agreed that the rulers of princely states would be allowed to opt for either annexing with Pakistan or India, or in special cases to remain independent.[190] India claims the Kashmir on the basis of the Instrument of Accession— a legal agreement with Kashmir's leaders executed by Maharaja Hari Singh who agreed to accede the area to India.[191][192] Pakistan claims Kashmir on the basis of a Muslim majority and of geography, the same principles that were applied for the creation of the two independent states.[193][194] India referred the dispute to the United Nations on 1 January 1948.[195] A resolution passed in 1948, the UN's General Assembly asked Pakistan to remove most of its troops as a plebiscite would then be held. However, Pakistan failed to vacate the region and a ceasefire was reached in 1949 with the Line of Control (LoC) was established, dividing Kashmir between the two nations.[190]
Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of the people of Jammu and Kashmir to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations,[196]while India has stated that Kashmir is an integral part of India, referring to the Simla Agreement(1972) and to the fact that elections take place regularly.[197] In recent developments, certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.[144]
Law enforcement
Main articles: Law enforcement in Pakistan, Pakistan Intelligence Community and National Intelligence Directorate
The law enforcement in Pakistan is carried out by joint network of several federal and provincial police agencies. The four provinces and the Islamabad Capital Territory each have a civilian police force with jurisdiction extending only to the relevant province or territory.[105]At the federal level, there are a number of civilian intelligence agencies with nationwide jurisdictions including the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA), Intelligence Bureau (IB), and the Motoway Patrol, as well as several paramilitary forces such as the National Guards(Northern Areas), the Rangers (Punjab and Sindh), and the Frontier Corps (Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan).
The most senior officers of all the civilian police forces also form part of the Police Service, which is a component of the civil service of Pakistan. Namely, there are four provincial police service including the Punjab Police, Sindh Police, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Police, and theBalochistan Police; all headed by the appointed senior Inspector-Generals. The Islamabad has its own police component, the Capital Police, to maintain law and order in the capital. The CID bureaus are the crime investigation unit and forms a vital part in each provincialpolice service.
The law enforcement in Pakistan also has a Motorway Patrol which is responsible for enforcement of traffic and safety laws, security and recovery on Pakistan's inter-provincialmotorway network. In each of provincial Police Service, it also maintains a respective Elite Police units led by the NACTA– a counter-terrorism police unit as well as providing VIP escorts. In Punjab and Sindh, the Pakistan Rangers are an internal security force with the prime objective to provide and maintain security in war zones and areas of conflict as well as maintaining law and order which includes providing assistance to the police.[198] The Frontier Corps serves the similar purpose in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, and theBalochistan.[198]
Geography, environment and climate
Main articles: Extreme weather records in Pakistan, Geography of Pakistan, Environment of Pakistan, Climate of Pakistan, Tropical cyclones and tornadoes in Pakistan andList of beaches in Pakistan
The geography and climate of Pakistan are extremely diverse, and the country is home to a wide variety of wildlife.[199] Pakistan covers an area of 796,095 km2 (307,374 sq mi), approximately equal to the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom. It is the 36th largest nation by total area, although this ranking varies depending on how the disputed territory of Kashmir is counted. Pakistan has a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south[200] and land borders of 6,774 km (4,209 mi) in total: 2,430 km (1,510 mi) with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi) with China, 2,912 km (1,809 mi) with India and 909 km (565 mi) with Iran.[105] It shares a marine border with Oman,[201] and is separated from Tajikistan by the cold, narrow Wakhan Corridor.[202] Pakistan occupies a geopolitically important location at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East and Central Asia.[203]
Geologically, Pakistan overlaps the Indian tectonic plate in its Sindh and Punjab provinces; Balochistan and most of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are within the Eurasian plate, mainly on the Iranian plateau. Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie along the edge of the Indian plate and hence are prone to violent earthquakes. Ranging from the coastal areas of the south to the glaciated mountains of the north, Pakistan's landscapes vary from plains to deserts, forests, hills and plateaus .[204]
Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain and the Balochistan Plateau.[205] The northern highlands contain theKarakoram, Hindu Kush and Pamir mountain ranges (see mountains of Pakistan), which contain some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), which attract adventurers and mountaineers from all over the world, notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) andNanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).[206] The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert in the east. The 1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries flow through the country from the Kashmir region to the Arabian Sea. There is an expanse of alluvial plains along it in Punjab and Sindh.[207]
The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all. There are four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November.[51] Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, and patterns of alternate flooding and drought are common.[208]
Flora and fauna
Main articles: Flora of Pakistan and Fauna of Pakistan
The diversity of landscapes and climates in Pakistan allows a wide variety of trees and plants to flourish. The forests range from coniferous alpine and subalpine trees such as spruce, pine and deodar cedar in the extreme northern mountains, through deciduous trees in most of the country (for example the mulberry-like shisham found in the Sulaiman Mountains), to palms such as coconut and date in southern Punjab, southern Balochistan and all of Sindh. The western hills are home to juniper, tamarisk, coarse grasses and scrub plants.Mangrove forests form much of the coastal wetlands along the coast in the south.[209]
Coniferous forests are found at altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 4,000 metres in most of the northern and northwestern highlands. In thexeric regions of Balochistan, date palm and Ephedra are common. In most of Punjab and Sindh, the Indus plains support tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forestry as well as tropical and xeric shrublands. These forests are mostly of mulberry, acacia, andeucalyptus.[210] About 2.2% or 1,687,000 hectares (16,870 km2) of Pakistan was forested in 2010.[211]
The fauna of Pakistan reflects its varied climates too. Around 668 bird species are found there:[212][213] crows, sparrows, mynas, hawks,falcons and eagles commonly occur. Palas, Kohistan, has a significant population of western tragopan.[214] Many birds sighted in Pakistan are migratory, coming from Europe, Central Asia and India.[215]
The southern plains are home to mongooses, civets, hares, the Asiatic jackal, the Indian pangolin, the jungle cat and the desert cat. There are mugger crocodiles in the Indus, and wild boar, deer, porcupines and small rodents are common in the surrounding areas. The sandy scrublands of central Pakistan are home to Asiatic jackals, striped hyenas, wildcats and leopards.[216][217] The lack of vegetative cover, the severe climate and the impact of grazing on the deserts have left wild animals in a precarious position. The chinkara is the only animal that can still be found in significant numbers in Cholistan. A small number of nilgai are found along the Pakistan-India border and in some parts of Cholistan.[216][218] A wide variety of animals live in the mountainous north, including the Marco Polo sheep, the urial (a subspecies of wild sheep), markhor and ibex goats, the Asian black bear and the Himalayan brown bear.[216][219][220] Among the rare animals found in the area are the snow leopard,[219] the Asiatic cheetah[221] and the blind Indus river dolphin, of which there are believed to be about 1,100 remaining, protected at the Indus River Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.[219][222] In total, 174 mammals, 177 reptiles, 22 amphibians, 198 freshwater fish species and 5,000 species of invertebrates (including insects) have been recorded in Pakistan.[212][213]
The flora and fauna of Pakistan suffer from a number of problems. Pakistan has the second-highest rate of deforestation in the world. This, along with hunting and pollution, is causing adverse effects on the ecosystem. The government has established a large number of protected areas, wildlife sanctuaries, and game reserves to deal with these issues.[212][213]
National parks and wildlife sanctuaries
Main article: Protected areas of Pakistan
As of present, there are around 157 protected areas in Pakistan that are recognized by IUCN. According to the 'Modern Protected Areas' legislation, a national park is a protected area set aside by the government for the protection and conservation of its outstanding scenery and wildlife in a natural state. The oldest national park is Lal Suhanra in Bahawalpur District, established in 1972.[223] It is also the onlybiosphere reserve of Pakistan. Lal Suhanra is the only national park established before the independence of the nation in August 1947.Central Karakoram in Gilgit Baltistan is currently the largest national park in the country, spanning over a total approximate area of1,390,100 hectares (3,435,011.9 acres). The smallest national park is the Ayub, covering a total approximate area of 931 hectares (2,300.6 acres).
Infrastructure
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Pakistan and Economic history of Pakistan
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Pakistan is a rapidly developing country[224][225][226] and is one of the Next Eleven, the eleven countries that, along with theBRICs, have a high potential to become the world's largest economies in the 21st century.[227] However, after decades of social instability, as of 2013, serious deficiencies in macromangament and unbalanced macroeconomics in basic services such as train transportation and electrical energy generation had developed.[228] The economy is semi-industrialized, with centres of growth along the Indus River.[229][230][231] The diversified economies of Karachi and Punjab's urban centres coexist with less developed areas in other parts of the country.[230] Pakistan's estimated nominal GDP as of 2011 is US$202 billion. The GDP by PPP is US$838,164 million.[232] The estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,197, GDP (PPP)/capita isUS$4,602 (international dollars), and debt-to-GDP ratio is 55.5%.[233][234] According to the World Bank, Pakistan has important strategic endowments and development potential. The increasing proportion of Pakistan’s youth provides the country with a potential demographic dividend and a challenge to provide adequate services and employment.[235]
A 2013 report published by the World Bank positioned Pakistan's economy at 24th largest in the world by purchasing power and 45th largest in absolute dollars.[231] It is South Asia's second largest economy, representing about 15.0% of regional GDP.[237][238] Pakistan's economic growth since its inception has been varied. It has been slow during periods of democratic transition, but excellent during the three periods ofmartial law, although the foundation for sustainable and equitable growth was not formed.[74] The early to middle 2000s was a period of rapid economic reforms; the government raised development spending, which reduced poverty levels by 10% and increased GDP by 3%.[105][239] The economy cooled again from 2007.[105] Inflation reached 25.0% in 2008[240] and Pakistan had to depend on a fiscal policy backed by the International Monetary Fund to avoid possible bankruptcy.[241][242] A year later, the Asian Development Bank reported that Pakistan's economic crisis was easing.[243] The inflation rate for the fiscal year 2010–11 was 14.1%.[244] On January 2014, a survey conducted by the Japan External Trade Organization placed Pakistan just behind Taiwan in terms of business generated by Japanese companies. Pakistan's data was generated from 27 Japanese firms doing business here. The results found that 74.1% of the Japanese companies estimated operating profit in 2013.[245]
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Pakistan is one of the largest producers of natural commodities, and its labour market is the 10th largest in the world. The 7-million–strong Pakistani diaspora contributed US$11.2 billion to the economy in 2011-12.[246] The major source countries of remittances to Pakistan are: the UAE; United States; Saudi Arabia; the Gulf states(Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and Oman); Australia; Canada; Japan; United Kingdom; Norway; and Switzerland.[247][248]According to the World Trade Organization, Pakistan's share of overall world exports is declining; it contributed only 0.128% in 2007.[249] The trade deficit in the fiscal year 2010–11 was US$11.217 billion.[250]
The structure of the Pakistani economy has changed from a mainly agricultural to a strong service base. Agriculture as of 2010 accounts for only 21.2% of the GDP. Even so, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Pakistan produced 21,591,400 metric tons of wheat in 2005, more than all of Africa (20,304,585 metric tons) and nearly as much as all of South America (24,557,784 metric tons).[251] Between 2002 and 2007 there was substantial foreign investment in Pakistan's banking and energy sectors.[252] Other important industries include clothing and textiles (accounting for nearly 60% of exports), food processing, chemicals manufacture, iron and steel.[253] There is great potential for tourism in Pakistan, but it is severely affected by the country's instability.[254] Pakistan's cement is also fast growing mainly because of demand from Afghanistan and from the domestic real estate sector. In 2013 Pakistan exported 7,708,557metric tons of cement.[255] Pakistan has an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons of cement and 42,636,428 metric tons of clinker. In 2012 and 2013, the cement industry in Pakistan became the most profitable sector of the economy.[256]
The Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Pakistan soared by 180.6% year-on-year to US$2.22 billion and portfolio investment by 276.1% to US$407.4 million during the first nine months of fiscal year 2006, the State Bank of Pakistan (SBP) reported on 24 April. During July–March 2005–06, the FDI year-on-year increased to US$2.224 billion from only US$792.6 million and portfolio investment to US$407.4 million, whereas it was US$108.1 million in the corresponding period last year, according to the latest statistics released by the State Bank.[257] Pakistan has achieved FDI of almost US$8.4 billion in the financial year2006-07, surpassing the government target of $4 billion.[258] Foreign investment had significantly declined by 2010, dropping by 54.6% due to Pakistan's political instability and weak law and order, according to the State Bank.[259]
The textile industry enjoys a pivotal position in the exports of Pakistan. Pakistan is the 8th largest exporter of textile products in Asia. This sector contributes 9.5% to the GDP and provides employment to about 15 million people or roughly 30% of the 49 million workforce of the country. Pakistan is the 4th largest producer of cotton with the third largest spinning capacity in Asia after China and India, and contributes 5% to the global spinning capacity. China is the second largest buyer of Pakistani textiles, importing US$1.527 billion of textiles last fiscal. Unlike U.S. where mostly value added textiles are imported, China buys only cotton yarn and cotton fabric from Pakistan. In 2012, Pakistani textile products accounted for 3.3% or US$1.07bn of total United Kingdom's textile imports, 12.4% or US$4.61bn of total Chinese textile imports, 2.98% or $2.98b of total United States' textile imports, 1.6% or US$0.88bn of total German textile imports and 0.7% or US$0.888bn of total Indian textile imports.[260]
The Pakistan's competitive yet profitable banking industry is continuously improving with a diversified pattern of ownership due to an active participation of foreign and local stakeholders.[citation needed] It has resulted into an increased competition among banks to attract a greater number of customers by the provision of quality services for long-term benefits. Now there are 6 full-fledged Islamic banks and 13 conventional banks offering products and services. Islamic banking and finance in Pakistan has experienced phenomenal growth. Islamic deposits – held by full-fledged Islamic banks and Islamic windows of conventional banks at present stand at 9.7% of total bank deposits in the country.[261] The list includes the largest Pakistani companies by revenue in 2012:
| Pakistan key economic statistics | ||
|---|---|---|
| Pakistan GDP composition by sector | [262] | |
| Agriculture | 25.3% | |
| Industry | 21.6% | |
| Services | 53.1% | |
| Employment | [263] | |
| Labour force | 59.7 million | |
| People employed | 56.0 million | |
| Natural Resources | [264][265] | |
| Copper | 12.3 million tonnes | |
| Gold | 20.9 million ounces | |
| Coal | 175 billion tonnes | |
| Shale Gas | 105 trillion cubic feet | |
| Shale Oil | 9 billion barrels | |
| Gas production | 4.2 billion cubic feet/day | |
| Oil production | 70,000 barrels/day | |
| Iron ore | 500 million[266] | |
| Corporations | Headquarters | 2012 revenue (Mil. $)[267] | Services |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pakistan State Oil | Karachi | 11,570 | Petroleum and Gas |
| Pak-Arab Refinery | Qasba Gujrat | 3,000 | Oil and refineries |
| Sui Northern Gas Pipelines | Lahore | 2,520 | Natural gas |
| Shell Pakistan | Karachi | 2,380 | Petroleum |
| Oil and Gas Development Co. | Islamabad | 2,230 | Petroleum and Gas |
| National Refinery | Karachi | 1,970 | Oil refinery |
| Hub Power Co. | Hub, Balochistan | 1,970 | Energy |
| K-Electric | Karachi | 1,840 | Energy |
| Attock Refinery | Rawalpindi | 1,740 | Oil refinery |
| Attock Petroleum | Rawalpindi | 1,740 | Petroleum |
| Lahore Electric Supply Co. | Lahore | 1,490 | Energy |
| Pakistan Refinery | Karachi | 1,440 | Petroleum and Gas |
| Sui Southern Gas Pipelines | Karachi | 1,380 | Natural gas |
| Pakistan International Airlines | Karachi | 1,360 | Aviation |
| Engro Corporation | Karachi | 1,290 | Food and Wholesale |
Nuclear power
Energy from the nuclear power source is provided by three licensed-commercial nuclear power plants, as of 2012 data.[268] Pakistan is the first Muslim country in the world to construct and operate civil nuclear power plants.[269] The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), the scientific and nuclear governmental authority, is solely responsible for operating these power plants, while the Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority regulates safe usage of the nuclear energy.[270] The electricity generated by commercial nuclear power plants constitutes roughly ~5.8% of electricity generated in Pakistan, compared to ~62% from fossil fuel (petroleum), ~29.9% from hydroelectric power and ~0.3% fromcoal.[271][272][273] Pakistan is one of the four nuclear armed states (along with India, Israel, and North Korea) that is not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty but is a member in good standing of the International Atomic Energy Agency.[274][275][276]
For the commercial usage of the nuclear power, China has provided an avid support for commercializing the nuclear power sources in Pakistan from early on, first providing the Chashma-I reactor. The Karachi-I, a Candu-type, was provided by Canada in 1971– the country's first commercial nuclear power plant. In subsequent years, People's Republic of China sold the nuclear power plant for energy and industrial growth of the country. In 2005, both countries reached out towards working on joint energy security plan, calling for a huge increase in generating capacity to more than 160,000 MWe by 2030. Original admissions by Pakistan, the government plans for lifting nuclear capacity to 8800 MWe, 900 MWe of it by 2015 and a further 1500 MWe by 2020.[277]
In June 2008, the nuclear commercial complex was expanded with the ground work of installing and operationalizing the Chashma-III and Chashma–IV nuclear power plants atChashma, Punjab Province, each with 320–340 MWe and costing ₨. 129 billion,; from which the ₨. 80 billion of this from international sources, principally China.
A further agreement for China's help with the project was signed in October 2008, and given prominence as a counter to the U.S.–India agreement shortly preceding it. Cost quoted then was US$1.7 billion, with a foreign loan component of $1.07 billion. In 2013, the second nuclear commercial complex in Karachi was marginalized and expanded to additional reactors, based on the Chashma complex.[278]
The electrical energy is generated by various energy corporations and evenly distributed by the National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA) among the four provinces. However, the Karachi-based K-Electric and the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) generates much of the electrical energy as well as gathering revenue nationwide.[279] Capacity to generate ~22,797MWt electricity has been installed in 2014, with the initiation of several energy projects in 2014.[271] Energy from the nuclear sourcesis provided by three licensed commercial nuclear power plants operated Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) under licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Authority.[280]Pakistan is the first Muslim country in the world to embark on a nuclear power program.[281] Commercial nuclear power plants generate roughly 5.8% of Pakistan's electricity, compared with about 64.0% from thermal, 29.9% from hydroelectric power, and ~0.3% from the Coal source.[279]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Pakistan
Pakistan, with its diverse cultures, people and landscapes attracted 1 million tourists in 2012.[282] Pakistan's tourism industry was in its heyday during the 1970s when the country received unprecedented amounts of foreign tourists. The main destinations of choice for these tourists were the Khyber Pass, Peshawar, Karachi, Lahore, Swat and Rawalpindi.[283] The country's attraction range from the ruin of civilisation such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Taxila, to the Himalayan hill stations. Pakistan is home to several mountain peaks over 7000 m.[284][unreliable source?]
The north part of Pakistan has many old fortresses, ancient architecture and the Hunza and Chitral valley, home to small pre-Islamic Animist Kalasha community claiming descent from Alexander the Great. Other attractions include the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Punjab province. Pakistan's cultural capital, with many examples of Mughal architecture such as Badshahi Masjid, Shalimar Gardens, Tomb of Jahangirand the Lahore Fort. Before the Global economic crisis Pakistan received more than 500,000 tourists annually.[285] However, this number has now come down to near zero figures since 2008 due to instability in the country and many countries declaring Pakistan as unsafe and dangerous to visit.
In October 2006, just one year after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, The Guardian released what it described as "The top five tourist sites in Pakistan" in order to help the country's tourism industry.[286] The five sites included Taxila, Lahore, The Karakoram Highway, Karimabad and Lake Saiful Muluk. To promote Pakistan's unique and various cultural heritage.[287][288] In 2009, The World Economic Forum's Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Pakistan as one of the top 25% tourist destinations for its World Heritage sites. Ranging from mangroves in the South, to the 5,000-year-old cities of the Indus Valley Civilization which included Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.[289]
Transport
Main article: Transport in Pakistan
The transport industry accounts for ~10.5% of nation's GDP.[290] Pakistan's motorway infrastructure is better than those of India, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, but the train systemlags behind those of India and China, and aviation infrastructure also needs improvement.[291]There is scarcely any inland water transportation system, and coastal shipping only meets minor local requirements.[292]
Highways form the backbone of Pakistan's transport system; a total road length of 259,618 km accounts for 91% of passenger and 96% of freight traffic. Road transport services are largely in the hands of the private sector, which handles around 95% of freight traffic. TheNational Highway Authority is responsible for the maintenance of national highways and motorways. The highway and motorway system depends mainly on north–south links, connecting the southern ports to the populous provinces of Punjab and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. Although this network only accounts for 4.2% of total road length, it carries 85% of the country's traffic.[293][294]
The Pakistan Railways, under the Ministry of Railways (MoR), operates the railroad system. From 1947 until 1970s, the train system was the primary means of transport until the nationwide constructions of the national highways and the economic boom of the automotive industry. Since 1990s, there was a marked shift in traffic from rail to highways; dependence grew on roads after the introduction of vehicles in the country. Now the railway's share of inland traffic is only 10% for passengers and 4% for freight traffic. Personal transportation dominated by the automobiles, the total rail track decreased from 8,775 km in 1990–91 to 7,791 km in 2011.[293][295] Pakistan expects to use the rail service to boost foreign trade with China, Iran and Turkey.[296][297]
Rough estimates accounts for 139 airports in Pakistan–both military and civilian airports which are mostly publicly owned. Though the Jinnah International Airport is the principal international gateway to Pakistan, the international airports in Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, Quetta, Faisalabad, Sialkot and Multan also handle significant amounts of traffic. The civil aviation industry is mixed with public and private sectors, which has been deregulated in 1993. While the state-owned Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) is the major and dominated air carrier that carries about 73% of domestic passengers and all domestic freight, the private airlines such as airBlue, Shaheen Air International, and Air Indus, also provide the similar services with low cost expenses. Major seaports are in Karachi, Sindh (the Karachi port and Port Qasim).[293][295] Since 1990s, the seaport operations have been moved to Balochistan with the construction of Gwadar Port and Gadani Port.[293][295]
Science and technology
Main articles: Science and technology in Pakistan and List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries
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Development on science and technology plays an influential role in Pakistan's infrastructure and helped the country to reach out to the world.[298] Every year, scientists from around the world are invited by the Pakistan Academy of Sciences and the Pakistan Government to participate in the International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics.[299] Pakistan hosted an international seminar on Physics in Developing Countries for International Year of Physics 2005.[300] Pakistani theoretical physicist Abdus Salam won a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the electroweak interaction.[301] Influential publications and the critical scientific works in the advancement of mathematics, biology, economics, computer science, and genetics have been produced by the Pakistani scientists at the domestic and international standings.[302]
In chemistry, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was the first Pakistani scientist to bring the therapeutic constituents of the neem tree to the attention of natural products chemists.[303][304][305] Pakistani neurosurgeon Ayub Ommaya invented the Ommaya reservoir, a system for treatment of brain tumours and other brain conditions.[306] Scientific research and development plays a pivotal role in Pakistani universities, collaboration with the government sponsored national laboratories, science parks, and co-operation with the industry.[307] In 2010, Pakistan was ranked 43rd in the world in terms of published scientific papers.[308] The PakistanAcademy of Sciences, a strong scientific community, plays an influential and vital role in formulating the science policies recommendation to the government.[309]
The 1960s era saw the emergence of the active space program led by the SUPARCO that produced advances in domesticrocketry, electronics, and aeronomy.[310] The space program recorded few notable feats and achievements; the successful launch of the first rocket into the space that made Pakistan as first South Asian country to achieve such task.[310] Successfully producing and launching nation's first space satellite in 1990, Pakistan became the first Muslim country and second South Asian country to put a satellite into space.[311]
As an aftermath of the 1971 war with India, the clandestine crash program developed atomic weapons in a fear and to prevent any foreign intervention, while ushering in theatomic age in the post cold war era.[118] Competition with India and tensions eventually led Pakistan's decision of conducting underground nuclear tests in 1998; thus becoming the seventh country in the world to successfully develop nuclear weapons.[312]
After establishing an Antarctic program, Pakistan is one of the small number of countries that have an active research presence in Antarctica. The Antarctic program oversees two summer research stations on the continent and plans to open another base, which will operate all year round.[313] Energy consumption by computers and usage has grown since 1990s when the PCs were introduced; Pakistan has over 20 million internet users and is ranked as one of the top countries that have registered a high growth rate in internet penetration, as of 2011.[314] Key publications has been produced by Pakistan, and domestic software development has gained a lot international praise.[315]
Overall, it has the 27th largest population of internet users in the world. Since 2000s, Pakistan has made significant amount of progress in supercomputing, and various institutions offers research in parallel computing. Pakistan government reportedly spends ₨. 4.6 billion on information technology projects, with emphasis on e-government, human resource and infrastructure development.[316]
| Prominent Pakistani Inventions | Detail |
|---|---|
| Ommaya reservoir | System for the delivery of drugs into the cerebrospinal fluid for treatment of patients with brain tumours. |
| (c)Brain | One of the first computer viruses in history |
| Electroweak interaction | Discovery led Muslim world's first Nobel Prize in Physics. |
| Plastic magnet | World's first workable plastic magnet at room temperature. |
| Non-lethal fertilizer | A formula to make fertilizers that cannot be converted into bomb-making materials. |
| Non-Kink Catheter Mount | A crucial instrument used in anesthesiology. |
| Human Development Index | Devised by Pakistan's former finance minister, Mahbub ul Haq.[317] |
| Standard Model | Particle physics theory devised part by Pakistan scientist Abdus Salam |
Education
Main articles: Education in Pakistan and Higher Education Commission
The Constitution of Pakistan requires the state to provide free primary and secondary education.[319][320] At the time of establishment of Pakistan as state, the country had only one university, the Punjab University in Lahore.[321] On immediate basis, the Pakistan governmentestablished public universities in each four provinices including the Sindh University (1949), Peshawar University (1950), Karachi University (1953), and Balochistan University (1970). As of September 2011, Pakistan has a large network of both public and privateuniversities; a collaboration of public-private universities to provide research and higher education in the country.[322] It is estimated that there are 3193 technical and vocational institutions in Pakistan,[323] and there are also madrassahs that provide free Islamic education and offer free board and lodging to students, who come mainly from the poorer strata of society.[324] Strongly instigated public pressure and popular criticism over the extremists usage of madrassahs for recruitment, the Pakistan government has made repeated efforts toregulate and monitor the quality of education in the madrassahs.[325][326]
Education in Pakistan is divided into six main levels: nursery (preparatory classes); primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); matriculation (grades nine and ten, leading to the secondary certificate); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a higher secondary certificate); and university programmes leading to graduate and postgraduate programs.[323] Network of Pakistaniprivate schools also operate a parallel secondary education system based on the curriculum set and administered by the Cambridge International Examinations of the United Kingdom. Some students choose to take the O-level and A level exams conducted by the British Council.[327]
Initiatives taken in 2007, the English medium education has been made compulsory to all schools across the country.[328][329]Additional reforms taken in 2013, all educational institutions in Sindh began instructions in Chinese language courses, reflecting China's growing role as a superpower and increasing influence in Pakistan.[330] The literacy rate of the population above ten years of age in the country is ~58.5%. Male literacy is ~70.2% while female literacy rate is 46.3%.[244] Literacy rates vary by region and particularly by sex; for instance, female literacy in tribal areas is 3.0%.[331] With the launch of the computer literacy in 1995, the government launched a nationwide initiative in 1998 with the aim of eradicating illiteracy and providing a basic education to all children.[332] Through various educational reforms, by 2015 the MoEd expects to attain 100.00% enrollment levels among children of primary school age and a literacy rate of ~86% among people aged over 10.[333]
After earning their HSC, students may study in a professional college or the university for bachelorate program courses such as science and engineering (BEng, BS/BSc, BTech)surgery and medicine (MBBS, MD), dentistry (BDS), veterinary medicine (DVM), criminal justice and law (LLB, LLM, JD), architecture (BArch), pharmacy (Pharm D.) and nursing(BNurs). Students can also attend a university for a bachelorate degree for business administration, literature, and management including the BA, BCom, BBA, and MBAprograms. The higher education mainly supervises by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) that sets out the policies and issues rankings of the nationwide universities. In October 2014, education activist Malala Yousafzai became by far the youngest ever person in the world to receive the Nobel peace prize.[334]
Demographics
Unofficial Pakistan Census estimates the country's population at ~188,144,040 (188.1 million) as of 2015, which is equivalent to 2.57% of the world population.[335] Noted as the sixth most populated country in the world, its growth rate is reported at ~2.03%, which is the highest of the SAARC nations and gives an annual increase of 3.6 million. The population is projected to reach 210.13 million by 2020 and to double by 2045.
At the time of the partition in 1947, Pakistan had a population of 32.5 million,[248][336] but the population increased by ~57.2% between the years 1990 and 2009.[337] By 2030, it is expected to surpass Indonesia as the largest Muslim-majority country in the world.[338][339]Pakistan is classified as a "young nation" with a median age of about 22, and 104 million people under the age of 30 in 2010. Pakistan's fertility rate stands at 3.07, higher than its neighbors India (2.57) and Iran (1.73). Around 35% of the people are under 15.[248]
Vast majority residing in southern skirts lives along the Indus River, with Karachi being its most populous commercial city.[340] In theeastern, western, and northern skirts, most of the population lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi,Sargodha, Islamabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan and Peshawar.[105] During 1990–2008, the city dwellers made up 36% of Pakistan's population, making it the most urbanised nation in South Asia.[105][248] Furthermore, 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people or more.[341]
Expenditure spend on healthcare was ~2.6% of GDP in 2009.[342] Life expectancy at birth was 65.4 years for females and 63.6 years for males in 2010. The private sector accounts for about 80% of outpatient visits. Approximately 19% of the population and 30% of children under five are malnourished.[231] Mortality of the under-fives was 87 per 1,000 live births in 2009.[342] About 20% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.[343]
More than sixty languages are spoken in Pakistan, including a number of provincial languages. Urdu— the lingua franca, a symbol of Muslim identity, and national unity— is the national language which is understood by over 75% of Pakistanis and the main source of nationwide communication.[203][344] English is the official language of Pakistan which is primarily used in official business, government, and legal contracts;[105] the local dialect is known as Pakistani English. The Punjabi language is the most common Punjab and has many native speakers while the Saraiki is mainly spoken in South Punjab. In Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the Pashto language is the provincial language and is well understood in Sindh and Balochistan.[5] The Sindhi language is the common language spoken in Sindh while the Balochi language is dominant in Balochistan.[5][51][345]
The Pakistan Census excludes the immigrants such as the 1.7 million registered Afghans from Afghanistan, who are found mainly in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and tribal belt with small numbers residing in Karachi and Quetta.[346][347] As of 1995, there were more than 1.6 million Bengalis, 650,000 Afghans, 200,000 Burmese, 2,320 Iranians, and Filipinos, and hundreds of Nepalese, Sri Lankans, and Indians living in Karachi.[348][349] Pakistan hosts more refugees than any other country in the world.[350]
The population is dominated by four main social groups: Punjabis, Pathans, Sindhis, and Balochs.[351] Rough accounts from 2009 indicates that the Punjabis dominates with 76.3 million (~44.15%) while the Pashtuns are the second dominated group with ~29.3 million (15.42%).[351] The Sindhis are estimated at 24.8 million (14.1%) with Seraikisapproximated at 14.8 million (10.53%).[351] The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs (the Indian emigrants) stands at ~13.3 million (7.57%) while and Balochs are accounted at 6.3 million (3.57%)– the smallest group in population terms.[351][352] The remaining 11.1 million (4.66%) belong to various ethnic minorities such as Hazaras and Kalashs.[351] There is also a large worldwide Pakistani diaspora, numbering over seven million residing worldwide.[352]
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Karachi  Lahore | 1 | Karachi | Sindh | 33,500,625 | 11 | Sargodha | Punjab | 4,557,514 | .jpg) Faisalabad  Hyderabad |
| 2 | Lahore | Punjab | 15,218,745 | 12 | Sialkot | Punjab | 1,733,252 | ||
| 3 | Faisalabad | Punjab | 7,847,446 | 13 | Bahawalpur | Punjab | 528,678 | ||
| 4 | Hyderabad | Sindh | 5,829,471 | 14 | Sukkur | Sindh | 400,148 | ||
| 5 | Peshawar | Khyber Pakhtunkhwa | 5,339,550 | 15 | Jhang | Punjab | 379,770 | ||
| 6 | Rawalpindi | Punjab | 4,899,766 | 16 | Sheikhupura | Punjab | 362,808 | ||
| 7 | Islamabad | Capital Territory | 5,607,798 | 17 | Abbottabad | khyber pakhtunkhwa | 705,999 | ||
| 8 | Multan | Punjab | 4,133,252 | 18 | Gujrat | Punjab | 325,952 | ||
| 9 | Gujranwala | Punjab | 1,082,262 | 19 | Larkana | Sindh | 322,315 | ||
| 10 | Quetta | Balochistan | 842,410 | 20 | Kasur | Punjab | 317,575 | ||
Religion
Main article: Religion in Pakistan
Pakistan is the second most populous Muslim-majority country[358] and has the second largest Shia population in the world afterIran.[359][360][361] About 97.0% of Pakistanis are Muslims. The majority are Sunni, with an estimated 5–20% Shia.[51][360][362] TheAhmadis, are another minority sect in Pakistan, albeit in much smaller numbers and are officially considered non-Muslims by virtue of the constitutional amendment.[363] There are also several Quraniyoon communities.[364][365] After the 9/11 attacks in the United States, the sectarian violence among Muslim denominations has increased with systematic targeted killings of both sects, Sunnis and Shias.[366][367] In 2013, there were country-wide protests by both Shias and Sunnis calling an end to sectarian violence in the country, toughen up the law and order, and urging for Shia-Sunni unity in the country.[368] The Ahmadis are particularly persecuted, especially since 1974 when they were banned from calling themselves Muslims. In 1984, Ahmadiyya places of worship were banned from being called "mosques".[369] As of 2012, 12% of Pakistani Muslims self-identify as non-denominational Muslims.[370]
Islam to some extent syncretized with pre-Islamic influences, resulting in a religion with some traditions distinct from those of the Arab world.[371] Two Sufis whose shrines receive much national attention are Ali Hajweri in Lahore (c. 12th century)[372] and Shahbaz Qalander inSehwan, Sindh (c. 12th century).[citation needed] Sufism, a mystical Islamic tradition, has a long history and a large popular following in Pakistan. Popular Sufi culture is centered on Thursday night gatherings at shrines and annual festivals which feature Sufi music and dance. Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists criticize its popular character, which in their view, does not accurately reflect the teachings and practice of the Prophet and his companions.[373][374]
After Islam, Hinduism and Christianity are the largest religions in Pakistan, with 2,800,000 (1.6%) adherents each in 2005.[51] They are followed by the Bahá'í Faith, which has a following of 30,000, then Sikhism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, each claiming 20,000 adherents,[362] and a very small community of Jains. There is a Roman Catholic community in Karachi which was established by Goan andTamil migrants when Karachi's infrastructure was being developed by the British during colonial administration between World War I andWorld War II. Influence of atheism is very little with 1.0% of the population aligned as atheist in 2005.[375] However, the figure rose to 2.0% in 2012 according to Gallup.[375]
Culture and society
The civil society in Pakistan is largely hierarchical, emphasising local cultural etiquettes and traditional Islamic values that govern personal and political life. The basic family unit is the extended family,[376] although there has been a growing trend towards nuclear families for socio-economic reasons.[377] The traditional dress for both men and women is the Shalwar Kameez; trousers, Jeans, and shirts are also popular among men.[31] The middle class has increased to around 35 million and the upper and upper-middle classes to around 17 million in recent decades, and power is shifting from rural landowners to the urbanised elites.[378] Pakistani festivals such as Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, Ramazan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali are mostly religious in origin.[376] Increasing globalisation has resulted in Pakistan ranking 56th on the A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization Index.[379]
Clothing, arts, and fashion
The Shalwar Kameez is the national dress of Pakistan and is worn by both men and women in all four provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa as well as in FATA and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style of wearing the Shalwar Kameez. Pakistanis wear clothes range from exquisite colors and designs to the type of fabric (silk, chiffon, cotton, etc).[380] Besides the national dress, the domestically tailored suits and neckties are often and usually worn by men in the country, and it is customary in offices, schools, and other necessary places and popular gatherings.[380]
The fashion industry has flourished well in the changing environment of fashion world. Since Pakistan came into being, its fashion has been historically evolved from different phases and made its unique identity apart from Indian fashion and culture. At this time, Pakistani fashion is a combination of traditional and modern dresses and it has become the cultural identification of Pakistan. Despite of all modern trends, the regional and traditional dresses have developed their own significance as a symbol of native tradition. This regional fashion is not static but evolving into more modern and pure forms. The Pakistan Fashion Design Council based in Lahore organizes Fashion Week and Fashion Pakistan based in Karachi organizes fashion shows in that city. Pakistan's first fashion week was held in November 2009.[381]
Feminism
Main articles: Women in Pakistan, Role of women in Pakistani media and Women in the Pakistan Armed Forces
The social status of women in Pakistan varies and considerably depends on the social class, upbringings, and regional dividedue to uneven socioeconomic development and the impact of social formations on women's lives in the country.[382] Pakistan has a long history of feminist activism since its birth which has played an important role in engaging women's activities in different aspects of lives in the country.[382] Since 1947, the APWA and Aurat Foundation– the influential feminist organizations— has played an influential role in Pakistan regarding awareness of women's rights.[382] Women personalities such as Begum Rana'a, Benazir Bhutto, Kalsoom Nawaz, and Bushra Ansari are few that have been an influential in Pakistan's feminist culture.[382] As of current, the status of women in Pakistan enjoy a better status than the past. However, on an average, the women's situation vis-à-vis men is one of systemic gender subordination.[382][383]
Now due to a heightened awareness among people, the educational opportunities for the Pakistani women increased in the previous years.[384] In 2014, the World Economic Forum ranked Pakistan as the second worst country in the world in gender equality.[385]
The Pakistani clergy have often worked with other members of civil society in denouncing violence against women; they have issued fatwas denouncing "honour killings" issued by the All Pakistan Ulema Council— the largest group of religious clergy.[386]However, the improvements are gradually being made, slowed down by political incompetence in Pakistan; Lahore has inaugurated its first service of lady traffic wardens to manage the traffic.[387] Even in Pakistan's most conservative province, Punjab, is now increasing the percentage of women in the police force.[388] The court system is also much more strignent against those who attack women, even in conservative regions such as Faisalabad where a man was condemned to 42 years in prison for throwing acid on a women's face [389]
Media and entertainment
Main articles: Cinema of Pakistan, Media of Pakistan, Music of Pakistan, History of Pakistani pop music, Theatre of Pakistan and Pakistani dramas
The private print media, state-owned Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV) and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation(PBC) for radio were the dominant media outlets until the start of the 21st century. Since 2000, Pakistan has a large network of private 24-hour news media and television channels.[390] In addition to the national entertainment and news channels, foreign television channels and films are also on air.[390][391]
The Lollywood– an Urdu film industry– is based in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. While Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 until 2008, they have remained important in popular culture.[392][393] Contrary to ailing film industry, the Urdu televised dramas and theatrical performances are widely popular in the country, as manyentertainment media air the series regularly.[394] The Urdu dramas dominates the entertainment industry of the country and is noted for debuting of some highly critically acclaimed miniseries as well as featuring some of popular actors and actresses in 1990s till the present.[395] In the 1960s–1970s, the pop music and disco (1970s) dominated the country's music industry. In the 1980s–1990s, the British influenced rock music began to be notice by the public and jolted the country's entertainment industry.[396] In 2000s, the introduction and emergence of the heavy metal music country's entertainment circle was highly appreciated and gained critical acclaim by the public.[397]
To many observers, the Pakistan's ingenious rock music is the only "arsenal" the country had against India's encroaching entertainment industry."[398]
Pakistani music ranges from diverse provincial folk music and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to modern forms fusing traditional and western music.[399][400]Pakistan has many famous folk singers. The arrival of Afghan refugees in the western provinces has stimulated interest in Pashto music, although there has been intolerance of it in some places.[401] Pakistan has some of the world's modern vibrant and open media.[402] Pakistani media has also played a vital role in exposing corruption.[403]
Urbanisation
Main article: Urbanisation in Pakistan
Since achieving independence as a result of the partition of India, the urbanization has exponentially increased and has several different causes for it.[340] Majority of southern side population resides along the Indus River, with Karachi being its most populous commercial city.[340] On the east,west, and northern skirts, the most of the population lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad,Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Sargodha, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan and Peshawar. During 1990–2008, the city dwellers made up 36.0% of Pakistan's population, making it the most urbanised nation in South Asia. Furthermore, more than 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people or more.[341]Immigration, both from within and outside the country, is regarded as one of the main factors that has contributed to urbanisation in Pakistan. One analysis of the national census held in 1998 highlighted the significance of the Partition of India in the 1940s in the context of understanding urban change in Pakistan.[404]
During the independence period, Muslim Muhajirs from India migrated in large numbers and shifted their domicile to Pakistan, especially to the port city of Karachi, which is today the largest metropolis in Pakistan.[404] Migration from other countries, mainly those in the neighbourhood, has further catalysed the process of urbanisation in Pakistani cities. Of particular interest is migration that occurred in the aftermath of the independence of Bangladesh in 1971,[404] in the form of stranded Biharis who were relocated to Pakistan. Smaller numbers of Bengalis and Burmese immigrants followed suit much later. The conflict in Afghanistan also forced millions of Afghan refugees into Pakistan, particularly in the northwestern regions. Inevitably, the rapid urbanisation caused by these large population movements has also brought new political and socio-economic complexities.[404] In addition to immigration, economic events such as the green revolution and political developments, among a host of other factors, are also important causes of urbanisation.[404]
Diaspora
Main articles: Cinema of Pakistan and Overseas Pakistani
Statistics approximated by the Pakistan government, there are around 7 million Pakistanis residing abroad with vast majority living in the Middle East, Europe and the North America.[405] Pakistan ranks 10th in the world for remittances sent home in 2012 at $13 billion.[406][407]
The term Overseas Pakistani is officially recognized by the Government of Pakistan; the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis was established in 2008 to exclusively deal with all the matters and affairs of the overseas Pakistanis such as attending to their needs and problems, intending schemes and projects for their welfare and working for resolution of their problems and issues. Overseas Pakistani workers are the second largest source of Foreign Exchange Remittances to Pakistan after exports and over the last several years, the foreign exchange remittances have maintained a steady rising trend, with a recorded increase of 21.8% from US$6.4 million in 2007–08 to US$7.8 million during 2008–09.
In 2009–10, Pakistanis sent home US$9.4 billion, the eleventh-largest total remittance in the world.[407] By 2012, Pakistan increased its ranking to tenth in the world for remittances with a total sum of US$13 billion.[406][407] The Overseas Pakistani Division (OPD) was created in September 2004 within the Ministry of Labour (MoL), and has since recognized the importance of overseas Pakistanis and their contribution to the nation's economy. Together with Community Welfare Attaches (CWAs) and the Overseas Pakistanis Foundation (OPF), the OPD is improving the welfare of Pakistanis who reside abroad. The division aims to provide better services through improved facilities atairports, and suitable schemes for housing, education and health care—its largest effort is the facilitation of the rehabilitation of returning overseas Pakistanis.
Literature and philosophy
Pakistan has literature in Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, Baluchi, Persian, English and many other languages.[408] The Pakistan Academy of Letters is a largest literary community that promotes literature and poetry works at the national and international level.[409] The National Library publishes and promotes much of the literary works on literature as well as providing a lobby at the public level to promote literature activities in the country. Before the 19th century, it consisted mainly of lyric and religious poetry, mystical and folkloric works. During the colonial age, the native literary figures influenced by western literary realism took up increasingly varied topics and narrative forms. Prose fiction is now very popular.[410][411]
The national poet of Pakistan, Muhammad Iqbal, wrote poetry in Urdu and Persian. He was a strong proponent of the political and spiritual revival of Islamic civilisation and encouraged Muslims binding all over the world to bring about successful revolution.[412][413][414] Well-known representatives of contemporary Pakistani Urdu literature include Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Sadequain is known for his calligraphy and paintings.[411] Sufi poets Shah Abdul Latif, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Bakhsh and Khawaja Farid are very popular in Pakistan.[415] Mirza Kalich Beg has been termed the father of modern Sindhi prose.[416]
Historically, the philosophical development in the country was dominated from the ideas of Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Syed, Muhammad Asad, Maududi, and Ali Johar.[417] Cues picked from the English philosophy (later American philosophy) greatly shaped thephilosophical development in the country. Analyst such as M.M. Sharif and Zafar Hassan, established the first major Pakistani philosophical movement in 1947.[418] After the 1971 war, Jalaludin Abdur Rahim, Gianchandani, and Malik Khalid were primary leading figures in the growth ofMarxism ideas incorporated in Pakistan's philosophical development.[419] Influential work by Manzoor Ahmad, Jon Elia, Hasan Askari Rizvi, andAbdul Khaliq brought the mainstream social, political, and analytical philosophy to the fore of Pakistani philosophical academia.[419] Global works by Noam Chomsky has been far reaching and influential in the development of philosophical ideas to impact various fields in social and political philosophy.[420][421]
Architecture
Main articles: Pakistani architecture and Hindu and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan
Pakistani architecture has four recognised periods: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial. With the beginning of the Indus civilisationaround the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE,[422] an advanced urban culture developed for the first time in the region, with large buildings, some of which survive to this day.[423] Mohenjo Daro, Harappa and Kot Diji are among the pre-Islamic settlements that are now tourist attractions.[206] The rise of Buddhism and the Persian and Greek influence led to the development of the Greco-Buddhist style, starting from the 1st century CE. The high point of this era was reached at the peak of the Gandhara style. An example of Buddhist architecture is the ruins of the Buddhist monasteryTakht-i-Bahi in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[424]
The arrival of Islam in today's Pakistan meant a sudden end of Buddhist architecture in the area and a smooth transition to the predominantly pictureless Islamic architecture. The most important Persian-style building still standing is the tomb of the Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan. During the Mughal era, design elements of Persian-Islamic architecture were fused with and often produced playful forms of Hindustani art. Lahore, occasional residence of Mughal rulers, exhibits many important buildings from the empire. Most prominent among them are the Badshahi mosque, the fortress of Lahore with the famous Alamgiri Gate, the colourful, Persian-style Wazir Khan Mosque, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore and the Shahjahan Mosque in Thatta. In the British colonial period, predominantly functional buildings of the Indo-European representative style developed from a mixture of European and Indian-Islamic components. Post-colonial national identity is expressed in modern structures like the Faisal Mosque, theMinar-e-Pakistan and the Mazar-e-Quaid.[425] Several of the architectural infrastructure has been influenced from the British design, and sucharchitectural designs can be found in Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.[425]
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